1. Emperor Trajan's Correspondence with Pliny the Younger
The letters exchanged between governor Pliny the Younger and Emperor Trajan in the early second century established a far reaching and long-standing policy within the Roman Empire toward Christians. Christians were not to be actively sought-out for persecution, but rather, they were to be punished (executed) only if accusations were brought against them, and they were to be released if they recanted (Gonzalez, 2010, Vol. 1, Kindle Locations 1053-1075). This policy was followed throughout the second century, continuing into the third (1088-1090). As an immediate result, persecution of Christians was sporadic rather than widespread (Stookey, SESSION 2: THE EARLY CHURCH: Ante-Nicene Christianity, 100-325). However, it also helped create complexity around the issues of martyrdom, i.e. the question of whether Christians should seek-out martyrdom (Gonzalez, 1159-1169). Finally, the practice of pardoning those who recant resulted in a class of “lapsed” Christians who became a source of controversy and division within the church by the third century (1997-2044).
2. The Conversion of Constantine and the Edict of Milan
Constantine won control of the western half of the Roman empire when he defeated Maxentius (Gonzalez, 2010, Vol. 1, Kindle Locations 2348-2349). For that battle, Constantine had his soldiers use what may have been a Christian symbol on their shields, and this is reported to have been the result of a revelation the night before. Christians saw this as the point of his conversion (2340-2346). In reality, his complete conversion to Christianity was probably a long process that continued until shortly before his death (2590-2665). However, there is no doubt that this victory and the subsequent political favor shown by Emperor Constantine toward Christians had enormous consequences for the history of Christianity. After the battle he made an alliance with Licinius of the Eastern portion of the empire. Their agreement in 313, known as the Edict of Milan, included a provision to end the persecution of Christians (2350-2352). Christians went from being a harshly persecuted people to eventually enjoying a status of tremendous political favor from the state. The wedding of church and state that began with Emperor Constantine would define Christendom for centuries. It would simultaneously support both the spread of Christianity throughout the vast Roman empire and the rampant corruption and egregious abuses of powerful prelates whose authority also shaped the face of Christianity and the formation of Christian doctrine for more than a thousand years leading up to the Reformation of the sixteenth century and beyond.
3. First Ecumenical Council - Council of Nicea, 325
The divinity of Christ as an eternal being officially became orthodoxy at the Council of Nicea in 325, the First Ecumenical Council. Its immediate effect was to condemn Arianism. Arius asserted that Christ was a created being, which ultimately put the worship of Christ as divine in jeopardy (Gonzalez, 2010, Vol. 1, Kindle Locations 3311-3326). Prior to this council, the church did not have an official position on the issue. Coming out of this important council was the terminology describing God the Father and Jesus Christ as "one substance" or "homoousios", a word that was suggested by Constantine (3390-3402). This terminology was later used when officially defining Trinitarian doctrine at the also important Second Ecumenical Council (Stookey, SESSION 3: THE EARLY CHURCH: Imperial Christianity, 325-600). The Council of Nicea in 325, called for by Constantine, was also part of the beginnings of the state using its power to force a unified system of beliefs among Christian citizens (3271-3278). That theme would continue for many centuries and become the cause of significant bloodshed and political turmoil, particularly in the Reformation era of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries (i.e. the Thirty Years War). It also provided us the basis of what is today called the Nicene Creed; recognized as the “most universally accepted Christian creed” (3403-3404).
4. Second Ecumenical Council - I Constantinople, 381
The Trinitarian doctrine of God as three persons of one substance, previously discussed at the Council of Nicea, was officially ratified at the Second Ecumenical Council (Gonzalez, 2010, Vol. 1, Kindle Locations 3656-3662). Since then, the doctrine of the Trinity has been a major pillar in defining the boundaries of Christian orthodoxy. It is a belief shared by the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and mainstream Protestant churches alike. Groups like the present day Jehovah's Witnesses who deny this doctrine are widely considered by mainstream Christianity to be heretical cults.
5. The Barbarian Invasions
The Barbarian invasions bolstered the Roman papacy (Stookey, SESSION 4: MEDIEVAL CHRISTIANITY: Low Middle Ages, 600-1054). The result was that the Roman bishop had no rival in the West, and it cut off the church from imperial control in the East. Furthermore, the arriving Barbarian hordes accepted the authority of the Pope, and added huge numbers to the Western church. This significantly increased the power and the reach of that church which we know today as the Roman Catholic Church. The RCC defined Christianity in the West until the sixteenth century Reformation, and continues to be the largest Christian denomination in the world.
6. The Great Schism
Tensions had been mounting for centuries when the Eastern and Western churches finally split in 1054 AD (Stookey, SESSION 4: MEDIEVAL CHRISTIANITY: Low Middle Ages, 600-1054). Disagreements included the method of baptism, the use of symbols/images, the worship of Mary, and finally, clerical celibacy. Prior to the Great Schism in the eleventh century, what were later called the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church were still unified as one universal ("catholic") church. Therefore, the Great Schism marked a major turning point for church unity. When it occurred in 1054 AD, first the West and then the East mutually excommunicated one another, and those declarations remained in place until 1965 (Stookey).
7. Council of Clermont (1095) and The Crusades
It was at the Council of Clermont in 1095 that Pope Urban II called for what are now known as The Crusades. There were several goals of the Crusades including the recapture of Jerusalem and the rescue of the Eastern empire from the Muslims, and the reunification of the Eastern and Western churches, which had split only a matter of decades before the Council of Clermont (Gonzalez, 2010, Vol. 1, Kindle Locations 5837-5839). In the immediate term, the Crusades succeeded in bringing about all of these. However, in the final outcome, all that was gained was eventually lost. One could argue that the most significant, lasting effects are a grave black mark on the history of the church that is frequently cited by detractors and in polemics against the Christian religion, and an ongoing distrust between Muslims and Christians that continues to manifest itself in violence to this day.
8. Luther's posting of the 95 Theses on the door of the castle church in Wittenburg
This event, which occurred on October 31, 1517, is commonly credited as the beginning of the Protestant Reformation (Gonzalez, 2010, Vol. 2, p. 28). In his 95 Theses, Luther attacked the sale of indulgences. He was responding specifically to the sale of full, plenary indulgences to pay for St. Peter's Cathedral (Stookey, SESSION 6: Renaissance & Reformation―Luther & Germany). The Protestant Reformation led to enormous reform within Christendom, beyond the Roman Catholic Church, and also within. Among the most significant results are the fundamental Protestant doctrines of sola fide (Faith Alone), sola gracia (Grace Alone), and sola scriptura (Scripture Alone).
9. Thirty Years War (1618-1648)
The very blood and protracted Thirty Years War resulted in a backlash against religious zealotry. Its immediate outcome was a limited degree of religious tolerance (Stookey, SESSION 8: Reformation (cont.) & Counter-Reformation). More significantly, however, it marked the beginning of a decline in religious fervor. People began seeing religion as a private matter (Gonzalez, 2010, Vol. 2, p. 184). That thought process transitioned into the Enlightenment, and eventually toward the separation of church and state.
10. Second Vatican Council (Vatican II) in 1965
Before Vatican II, the Roman Catholic Church responded to the new political, economic, and social changes of the modern era with extreme disapproval (Gonzalez, 2010, Vol. 2, p. 441) . Progressive theologians were censured by the Roman Catholic Church (Stookey, SESSION 13: Modern Christianity, 20th century). Vatican II marked the beginning of a new receptiveness to modern ideas. The immediate effects included permitting use of the vernacular languages and the adaption of liturgy as appropriate to meet the needs of various cultures (Gonzalez, p. 445). The longer term effects are still playing out, but they are virtually guaranteed by radical departures from the church’s historical positions on things like religious freedom, which was embraced at Vatican II (p. 446). This also includes toleration of those within the RCC who promote progressive ideas like Henri de Lubac, for example, who having previously been silenced, was assigned as a theological consultant for Vatican II (Gonzalez, p. 453), and later became a cardinal (Stookey).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
González, Justo L. (2010). The Story of Christianity: Volume 1. Pymble: HarperCollins e-books, 2010. Kindle Edition.
González, Justo L. (2010). The Story of Christianity: Volume 2. Pymble: HarperCollins. Print.
Stookey, Stephen M. THEO 6305 Lecture Notes. Dallas Baptist University. Retrieved December 12, 2012.
